The ripple leads to power losses and overheating of components hence risk of damage in addition to inefficiency. It is therefore essential to remove or minimize the ripple in at the output.

This is done using filter circuits which usually consist of a parallel capacitor or series inductor or both.

Where — Vripple rms is the rms value of ripple voltage at the output and Vdc is the absolute value of the power supply output dc value.

The ripple can be reduced by smoothing capacitors which converts the ripple voltage into a smoother dc voltage. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are widely used for this and have capacitances of uF or more.

The repeated dc pulses charges the capacitor to the peak voltage. Factors to consider when selecting the capacitor are the working voltage and the capacitance value.

An electronic filter with high impedance at the ripple frequency may be used to reduce ripple voltage and increase or decrease DC output; such a filter is often called a smoothing filter.

The ripple voltage output is very large in this situation; the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is equal to the peak AC voltage minus the forward voltage of the rectifier diodes.

In the case of an SS silicon diode, the forward voltage is 0. The output voltage is a sine wave with the negative half-cycles inverted.

The equation is:. Reducing ripple is only one of several principal considerations in power supply filter design.

Therefore, large discrete components like high ripple-current rated electrolytic capacitors, large iron-core chokes and wire-wound power resistors are best suited to reduce ripple to manageable proportions before passing the current to an IC component like a voltage regulator, or on to the load.

The kind of filtering required depends on the amplitude of the various harmonics of the ripple and the demands of the load.

In contrast, a battery charger , being a wholly resistive circuit, does not require any ripple filtering. Series resistors may replace chokes for reducing the output DC voltage, and shunt resistors may be used for voltage regulation.

Most power supplies are now switched mode designs. The filtering requirements for such power supplies are much easier to meet owing to the high frequency of the ripple waveform.

A capacitor input filter in which the first component is a shunt capacitor and choke input filter which has a series choke as the first component can both reduce ripple, but have opposing effects on voltage and current, and the choice between them depends on the characteristics of the load.

Capacitor input filters have poor voltage regulation, so are preferred for use in circuits with stable loads and low currents because low currents reduce ripple here.

Choke input filters are preferred for circuits with variable loads and high currents since a choke outputs a stable voltage and higher current means less ripple in this case.

The number of reactive components in a filter is called its order. Resistive components including resistors and parasitic elements like the DCR of chokes and ESR of capacitors also reduce signal strength, but their effect is linear , and does not vary with frequency.

A common arrangement is to allow the rectifier to work into a large smoothing capacitor which acts as a reservoir. After a peak in output voltage the capacitor supplies the current to the load and continues to do so until the capacitor voltage has fallen to the value of the now rising next half-cycle of rectified voltage.

At that point the rectifier conducts again and delivers current to the reservoir until peak voltage is again reached. If the RC time constant is large in comparison to the period of the AC waveform, then a reasonably accurate approximation can be made by assuming that the capacitor voltage falls linearly.

A further useful assumption can be made if the ripple is small compared to the DC voltage. However, 'bursts ' are three-dimensional and, in the sea, have dimensions much greater than the wavelength of the ripples.

A model of high-frequency ripples in the hippocampus based on synaptic coupling plus axon-axon gap junctions between pyramidal neurons.

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